Friday, September 4, 2009
Chinese Religions, Cults, the State and Politicization
To this point in the class our reading and discussion has moved across the diverse religious and political geography of contemporary China (Overmyer, Jensen, Blum and Jensen, Yu), the history of the concept of "religion" (Smith) while also opening a window on the longer history of Chinese millenarianism and religious persecution (Chang). With this background I would like to see what you make of the argument advanced Maria Hsia Chang that Falun gong represents a sect that "is apocalyptic and millenarian." Given what you have read about Falun gong so far consider the merit of Chang's claim. Is Falun gong a millenarian movement on par with early religious phenomena like the White Lotus? If so, why? If not, why not? Also, what do you make of her extraordinary claim that the Chinese revolution was a millenarian movement and thus the heightened sensitivity displayed by the Chinese government toward Falun gong is a consequence of the adventist ideology that both movements share. (See page 59)
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In the conclusion of our reading, Maria Chang states that, "the leadership of Falun gong has insisted that the sect is not a religion but merely promotes spiritual and moral cultivation. An examination of its belief system, however, indicates otherwise." This distinction between a "following" and "religion" is how Chang supposes the Chinese Communist Party detects a threat. Specifically, the millenarian and apocalyptic aspects of such movements as the White Lotus Society, as well as Falun gong, are what helped to drive followers to such extreme rebellion. In the face of death and destruction, passionate believers of any faith would be willing to commit acts that they may not have under normal circumstances. This "passionate belief" is what turns texts and teachings into religion. In turn, revolution of any kind is an act inspired by "passionate beliefs." For this reason, I believe that Chang makes a logical connection between the Chinese revolution and Falun gong. From the perspective of the Chinese Communist Party, based on the histories of such similar movements, they were taking justified precautions, preventing the growth of Falun gong.
ReplyDeleteAnother thing in common with the movements explored in Chang's essay is that they all begin as faithful pathways to a greater life, but leaders become corrupt as they gain power and use teachings to scare followers into action and violence. For instance, the Boxers believed that imminent suffering would be followed by salvation. Under the influence that the endtimes, and salvation, could be hurried along by a human catalyst, they went around burning churches and terrorizing villages. Perhaps Falun gong, which preaches truthfullness and benevolence, could one day have ended in much the same way.
After reading about the history of religion in China, I realized that Daoism wasn't all that different from Falun gong in terms of beliefs. This made me wonder why falun gong posed such a threat to the Chinese government while Daoism seemingly did not. My conclusion is that possibly daoism emphasizes individualism and separation from society while falun gong is a practice that involves being part of a group. The Chinese government cannot have any large organized groups to contend with and therefore decided to end the then increasingly popular falun gong craze. Falun gong was also growing at an exceedingly fast pace which virtually saw no end to its membership. Daoism was an established spiritual practice at the onset of the communist Chinese government's reign in 1949 which had coexisted in Chinese society for centuries with little major conflict.
ReplyDeleteMaria Cheng defines a millenarian group as "a powerfully emotional social movement whose members anticipate a unique type of social salvationism whereby the complete destruction of the existing order would herald the arrival of a new and perfect society." According to this description, I would not have originally classified Falun Gong as a millenarian movement. WHile Falun Gong certainly exemplifies a powerfully emotional social movement, I do not believe Falun Gong originally aimed for the type of "social salvation" Cheng describes. In my opinion, Falun Gong was a movement aimed at improving personal and spiritual health. Only after the Chinese government's violent response did the movement become millenarian, as Falun Gong practitioners fought against the aggression demonstrated towards them and for recognized social status in China. However, even after the government's outcry against the movement, Falun Gong cannot be classified as an apocalyptic movement. Falun Gong focused more on spiritual, mental, and physical betterment rather than a message of apocalyptic messianism.
ReplyDeleteCheng's article also accurately describes the Chinese revolution as millenarian. The Chinese Communist Party began as a response to the chaos and disorder of the existing government. As the definition for a millenarian group describes, the CCP aimed to completely revamp the existing social order so as the create a better Chinese society. However, I disagree with the assertion that this explains the CCP's violent response to Falun Gong. Falun Gong did not originate as a millenarian movement. It only became political after the violence began. As Cheng states, "the Chinese government historically regarded all non-Confucian faiths as more than religious rivals; they were seen as incipient political competitors, each carrying the seed of rebellion." China's tradition of suspicion towards non-Confucian beliefs and the tendency to see these groups as political rivals is what lead to China's violent response to Falun Gong, rather than any millenarian similarities.
I see falun gong as more of an individualistic spiritual movement which tries to improve people as individual rather than harness society holistically to achieve some lofty goal. In this way, falun gong is very much like daoism, but as I discussed in my previous post, poses a larger threat to the Chinese government than daoism does. I am not sure falun gong foresees a major transformation of society as the communist government or groups like the Taiping heavenly kingdom foresee. If anything, falun gong foresees an improvement of an individual through compassion, truthfulness and forbearance. It is true falun gong has the contention that the more people who participate in falun gong, the better the world will be, but by no means does this mean falun gong's tenets include some kind of utopian conclusion to the world.
ReplyDeleteAfter examining the readings, I believe that Chang makes a correct although slightly unconvincing argument that Falun Gong is an "apocalyptic and millenarian" sect. The "spiritual and moral cultivation" goals espoused by the leadership of Falun Gong seem to point towards Chang's secular definition of millenarianism. The phrasing "a unique type of social salvationism" leads me to agree with her conclusion. Falun Gong may not be moving toward a salvation reminiscent of early sects, but by its desire to be heard and spread round the world we can see that it is attempting its own "unique" salvation. In examining their website it appeared as if recruitment of new members was strongly encouraged; literature and classes were free and supposedly easy to come by. I do not mean to suggest that they do not have good intentions and/or simply wish to spread what they believe is a good thing to any willing participant, and it is well within their rights to do so. All I am arguing is that in the context defined, I would call Falun Gong millenarian. An early post touched on this issue well by pointing out that initially Falun Gong may have initially escaped this classification, yet as it became a political issue, the whole climate of the movement changed. Chang even claims, "This pattern of initially religious groups becoming politicized was widespread and characterized a myriad of subsequent secret societies" (discussion of While Lotus). Perhaps "apocalyptic" is too strong of a characterization, and thus it is not quite syncretic with earlier religious movements, however "social salvation" appears a real and present goal of Falun Gong, and thus the classification of "millenarian".
ReplyDeleteContinuing with the claim that the Chinese revolution was a millenarian movement, I am more skeptic. I do not think the revolution was inherently millenarian, however it can squeeze into her use of a broadened secular definition, as earlier discussed. One sentence of Chang's that speaks well to this issue comes in the conclusion, as she states, "Having come to power by exploiting China's millenarian tradition, the Communist Party is only too mindful of the potency of such movements". In this exploitation, the CCP was proclaiming a move towards the "social salvation" characterizing secular millenarianism, and this "salvation" would now be enforced politically and officially, rather than from an unsanctioned cult. However, as Chang argues, the CCP is perhaps itself a cult ("it takes a cult to know a cult"), and recognizes the subversive forces that can take hold in a rebellious population, leading to its crack down or Falun Gong.
I must disagree with several of my classmates. I do not believe that Falun Gong is a millenarian organization. Chang clearly defines a millenarian relglion as one with clear political and apocalyptic goals. While Falun Gong may be "an emotional social movement", the religion has no political goals other than to achieve recognition and to be legally allowed to practice their beliefs.
ReplyDeleteChang clearly states that a millenarian relgion, such as the White Lotus movement, believes that it is their job to create a revolution to overthrow and destroy the existing social order. For example, the White Lotus society believes that history will have three apocalypses, and that we are currently living in the last kalpa. History has an end point. Falun Gong has no such beliefs.
Contrary to what my classmates have said, I do not believe that Falun Gong is "political" in the traditional revolutionary sense. This religion does not aim to transform the government of China or overthrow the communist party. Falun Gong followers merely want to be able to legally practice their meditiation and exercises and to no longer be persecuted. They do not ask for revolution, but merely acceptance. In these ways, Falun Gong is not millenarian or apocalyptic.
After reading Maria Chang’s article, “Chinese Religions and Millenarian Movements,” I remain skeptical of her claim that the Falun Gong represents a sect that is “apocalyptic and millenarian.” To begin this assertion, Maria Chang describes secret societies as “voluntary autonomous associations in conscious opposition to oppression by the state or by the wealthy and powerful gentry-landowning elite.” Furthermore, she describes the millenarian movements by adding on to her definition of secret societies to say that they are “powerfully emotional social movements whose members anticipate a unique type of ‘social salvationism’ whereby the complete destruction of the existing order would herald the arrival of a new and perfect society.” Thus, these millenarian movements call for the complete destruction of existing society and also proclaim the coming of a savior who will arrive to bring about this destruction. Chang calls this idea of the coming of a savior religious messianism. At the conclusion of her article, she does describe the Falun Gong as apocalyptic and millenarian, which I find to be false.
ReplyDeleteSimply, I do not see that the Falun Gong meets her definition of what a millenarian sect is. Falun Gong practitioners do not desire a “complete destruction of the existing order.” They do not proclaim the coming of a savior who will rid the world of its corruptions and bring about the end of society as it is known and the rise of a new one. Rather, Falun Gong practitioners seek personal cultivation, through peaceful meditations and breathing exercises. Their primary goal is not political but personal achievement. Thus, I find the idea that Falun Gong is millenarian to be wrong.
Although the Falun Gong is in conscious opposition to oppression by the state, which is one of Maria Chang’s definitions for a secret society, they do not have any propositions of the ending of the world or the coming of a savior. Furthermore, this opposition is only because the Chinese government has brought violence upon them when they did not initiate such unwarranted violence. At first I did not understand why the Chinese Communist Party responded with such crushing violence to the peaceful Falun Gong, but this article has helped me to understand the reasons. As Maria Chang describes, “The Chinese government historically regarded all non-Confucian faiths as more than religious rivals, they were seen as incipient political competitors, each carrying the seed of rebellion.” I think that in the case of the Falun Gong, the Chinese government has fabricated an image of political rebellion out of nothing more than a peaceful organization and in so doing has created a major conflict. As Chang also wrote, “by its religious intolerance, the Chinese state created its own nemesis.”
From what I have read about Falun gong, I don’t believe it is a millenarian sect. I understand that it is political through its protests, but I understood the protests to be an effort to gain recognition and end persecution, not as a form of millenarian revolution. In the same way, I don’t see Falun gong as apocalyptic. I understood it to be mostly a health-related practice that is focused on positive and balanced lifestyles.
ReplyDeleteFalun gong follows the White Lotus in that it was initially religious but grew political. Chang argues that the political nature of secret groups like the White Lotus and Falun gong was brought about due to government persecution. Therefore it is unsurprising that these groups and many others followed the same path.
Chang rashly claims that “secret societies were directly involved in all of the peasant rebellions in Chinese history” (49). She argues effectively for why this is, but it still seems somewhat unfounded. This claim does lead to the template the various secret societies have followed. The government uses this template of religious cults becoming political to shape its policies toward new sects. Chang argues that the policies of oppression and persecution the government employs cause these secret societies to become political entities. Because many other groups have followed this template in the past, it is not surprising that Falun gong is viewed in the same way, as apocalyptic and millenarian. However, based on the fact that Falun gong is a religious cult with a charismatic leader which has grown increasingly political does not necessarily lead to it being apocalyptic and millenarian. Chang lays out other criteria for a millenarian sect including an expectation that “the complete destruction of the existing order would herald the arrival of a new and perfect society” (48) which Falun gong does not completely fulfill. Falun gong’s political protests have been in the interest of gaining political recognition and decreasing persecution. They hope to change the current regime to accommodate more religious freedom, but they do not hope for its “complete destruction.”
The claim that the Communist revolution was millenarian is based on the fact that many of the early leaders of the revolution had previously been leaders of secret societies. I see how their ideology can been seen as millenarian because it is utopian and “powerfully emotional” (48), but it does not follow the same template as the other secret societies of Chinese history so cannot be exactly compared to these other groups. This claim also stems from the claim I mentioned earlier that “secret societies were directly involved in all of the peasant rebellions in Chinese history” (49) so I do not see that this new claim is any more successfully supported.
I happen to agree with the side that argues that Falun Gong is not a millenarian organization. From what we have read of the practices and beliefs of the group, I do not see any tendecies for apocalyptic teachings or practices. It seems as though, as others have already said, that the belief system is centered mainly on the individual, yet it encourages the individual to be a part of a group. (And what a large group that it is.) I feel that it is quite absurd for the Chinese government to be threatened by the Falun Gong purely because it is a large group, but it seems as though that is the only reason for a fear of this non-millenarian group.
ReplyDeleteI do not think of Falun Gong as a millenarian movement. The other millenarian movements that Chang cited in her article, like the White Lotus and the Tai Ping, sought to bring about the new age more actively through violent revolts. Falun Gong, on the other hand, has been largely represented as a spiritual movement emphasizing personal well being. At the very most, they have been involved in peaceful protest aimed at social change, and that social change is aimed at altering the current age rather than destroying it.
ReplyDeleteAlternatively, I thought connecting the Cultural Revolution and the historical millenarian movements was quite interesting. I had thought of the Chinese Revolution as a largely political movement with little or no connection to religion. However, as we are learning in class, politics and religion in China are immeshed with each other. I had not seen the Chinese revolution as millenarian, but since Chang pointed it out in her article, I can see the similarities in their belief that they are bringing a new age of enlightenment and prosperity. Nevertheless, while I may be able to project that interpretation onto the Revolution as an outsider, I think that any member of the Chinese communist party would reject a connection with previous superstitious cults.
oh, and that was Katie Allare, just for clarification.
ReplyDeleteGiven what I have read so far on Falun Gong and religion in China, I believe the evidence supports Maria Chang's statement that Falun Gong is a millenarian sect. She states that there are three conditions that give rise to these movements. First, there must a great collective social upheaval. Amongst examples, she includes “rapid industrialization and modernization.” The recent expansion of China's urban centers and manufacturing base has clearly met this condition. Secondly, the populace must be looking for a messianic figure. It may be a stretch to say for certain that this has been the case, but, given how religious the the Chinese populace is, it is within reason. Finally, Chang argues that a messianic figure must emerge and call for a sort of societal renaissance. Looking closely at this condition, it becomes apparent that Falun Gong founder Li Hongzhi has drawn a lot from the White Lotus Society. (Chang 49)
ReplyDeleteMembers of the White Lotus society were waiting for their central god to bestow on the earth a third buddha to save believers. This Buddha Maitreya would be a charismatic man with “a surname of Li, Liu, Zhu, Zhang, or Wang” (Chang 53). In fact, as we learn in the Lionel Jensen essay “Falun Gong”, Li Hongzhi even goes so far as to claim to share Buddha's birthdate (Jensen 184). Additionally, given the many scientific and emotional benefits Falun Gong believers espouse, Li Hongzhi absolutely fits the description of a messianic figure seeking to bring about societal revitalization. Falun Gong meets Maria Chang's conditions for millenarian movements, and therefore must be considered as such.
I am thoroughly unconvinced, however, by Chang's claim that the Chinese revolution was a millenarian movement. While describing each of China's many revolutions, she is able to provide details on which secret societies played a role in the uprisings. These include The Eight Trigrams in 1813, the followers of Hong Xiuquan during the Taiping Rebellion of 1850, and even the Triads during the Republican revolution of 1911 (Chang 53-58). However, when she comes upon the Chinese Communist Revolution of 1949, Chang is remarkably short on details. By only providing the names of three party members who had at one point been members of secret societies, Chang provides woefully inadequate evidence (Chang 59). It may indeed be true that the Chinese Communist Revolution was a millenarian movement, but Maria Chang's argument simply fails to support this notion. Actually, it does not seem far-fetched to suggest that the Chinese Communist Revolution was the first Chinese revolution that was not brought about by a millenarian movement.
I think that Falun Gong is a millenarian movement like the White Lotus on the basis that it has similar anti-governmental characteristic. The White Lotus based on its principle on the ‘coming of Buddha Maitreya to eradicate the corrupt world and set a new world.’ It started during the Southern Song Dynasty of China by MoZiYuan (茅子元) and later in its era it started to have more of the sorcery-like characteristics. The White Lotus’ faith in Buddha Maitreya was very effective in gathering its followers – especially those who were poor and difficult. The reason that the Chinese government suppressed Falun Gong is because it triggered poor people to believe in some kind of supernatural power, reject the traditional care for diseases and result in a large number of casualties. Because it had a secret organization and had secretly increased their power throughout the country, the government classified Falun Gong as an anti-government religion sect and started to suppress them. Even though Falun Gong representatives did not confirm to be an anti-government religion, it is hard to deny that it is not.
ReplyDeleteIn the conclusion of Maria Chang’s chapter on ‘Chinese Religion and Millenarian Movements’, she writes, “Having come to power by exploiting China’s millenarian tradition, the Communist Party is only too mindful of the potency of such movements.” In her conclusion, Chang attempts to convince us that Falun Gong is merely a cult, in the negative sense of the word. I believe that Chang’s argument is baseless and misleading. The Chinese Communist party is an oppressive, overpowering government who protect their own interests above anyone else’s, including their own citizens.
ReplyDeleteFalun Gong is indeed millenarian and apocalyptic in its beliefs; not unlike Christianity. The notion that practitioners of Falun Gong make up a dangerous cult is an invention fabricated by the Chinese Communist party. As Falun Gong members say, their practice is concerned only with moral and spiritual cultivation. And members have done nothing to make anyone believe that they are anything other than a peaceful movement: their nonviolent, pacifistic demonstration in April of 1999 against the Communist party is a testament to that fact.
In regards to the Taiping Rebellion being an excuse for the Chinese government to be wary of other Adventist-like movements, I think that it is merely that – a meaningless excuse. To compare the practice of Falun Gong to the Chinese rebellion is a foundationless argument. Practitioners of Falun Gong have done nothing to warrant the treatment they are receiving from the government, and until they do (if ever), the treatment being given to them should be regarded as a gross crime against humanity.
As has been suggested in the blogs prior to mine, Falun Gong does not fit the definition of a millenarian movement. It has no greater goal towards a societal revamping, but rather emphasizes the transformation of the individual; however by labeling Falun Gong as its enemy, the CCP created its own monster so to speak. By criminalizing Falun Gong, the continued practice of this "cult" now defies the state and does pose a threat, especially due to the international attention it has drawn.
ReplyDeleteAt the moment, I do not believe it poses the same kind of realthreat that earlier movements did, because the central authority remains for the most part politically in charge, making large-scale demonstrations more difficult. Which makes that "10,000" person strong demonstration very interesting...
Although I was impressed by Chang’s argument that the persecution and subsequent underground movement of vibrant religious activity eventually results in a politicization of that religion, and interested by the breadth of examples she presented readers, I can’t help but be skeptical of how useful this information in analyzing the development of Falun Gong.
ReplyDeleteFalun Gong seems, in many ways, to be markedly different from the examples Chang presented. (Buddhism, Daoism, and “Confucianism” were shown as religions officially accepted and prevalent in Chinese society, and other groups such as the White Lotus Society, The Heavenly Kingdom of the Great Peace, and the Eight Trigrams were presented as historical evidence of past millenarian movements in China.) However, although Chang focused in the similarities between Falun Gong and these movements (most of which seem to stem from a common “Folk religion of antiquity that seems to be quite prevalent in Chinese culture) and the “benefit” of a charismatic, living leader, there are several important differences.
Falun Gong is a religion that has spread to many different countries in an age where the limits of transportation and communication are more likely to be issues of deliberate interference than of technological inadequacy. Falun Gong is not the first religion to have support from overseas, but new technology has given like-minded groups the ability to network and plan over great distances. Falun Gong is not the White Lotus Society, a patchwork of small groups that are often led independently. Nor is it as easy to misinterpret the teachings of the leader, or to splinter itself off from those affiliated groups that are working outside China. (This does not mean such an occurrence is not possible, merely that it is perhaps less likely.)
I think these are important concepts to remember when theorizing about Falun Gong’s potential for violence. These are factors that could either keep the majority of Falun Gong adhering to the relatively peaceful message it professed before its (more overt, current level of) persecution, or these factors could mobilize the groups to pursue the very political agenda that the Chinese government fears it might take.
I do think that the certain aspects of the Chinese government could fall under the category of “millenarian movement,” but I think a lot of those aspects are present in- if not all, then at least many- instances of abrupt and dramatic government change originating from within the country of origin. And to say that the Chinese government can therefore be labelled as a Millenariam movement simply for sharing a few of those characteristics, is a rather unsteadty position to take.
B. Murphy