Saturday, November 14, 2009
Interpretative Commentary on Falun Gong: Phenomenology, Sociology, Theology
Following a week in which many of you offered reflection on the difficulty of defining religion itself, we attempt in this most recent installment of the weblog to attempt a comparative consideration of the cultic and religious aspects of Falun gong. In doing this we will employ the historical and theoretical material we have acquired from our reading in Peter Brown, Emile Durkheim, and Daniel O'Keefe to see how it illuminates the cosmology, theory, and practice of Falun gong. Make certain in this assignment that you cite the relevant passages from Brown, Durkheim, and O'Keefe in corroborating your comparative claims. How is Falun gong like a cult, or subcult of a "routinized" religion? How does the dialectic of magic and religion help to explain this emergent spiritual phenomenon? How can Durkheim's researches into the psychology, sociology and symbology of religion assit us in comprehending the powerful appeal of Falun gong?
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“The model of ‘popular religion’ that is usually presented by scholars of late antiquity has the disadvantage that it assumes that ‘popular religion’ can be understood only from the viewpoint of the elite. ‘Popular religion’ is presented as in some ways a diminution, a misconception or a contamination of ‘unpopular religion.’ Whether it is presented, bluntly, as ‘popular superstition’ or categorized as ‘lower forms of belief,’ it is assumed that ‘popular religion’ exhibits modes of thinking and worshipping that are best intelligible in terms of a failure to be something else.” (p. 19) Falun gong fails to be a "popular religion" because it does not include a system of priests, monks, etc. and has developed only recently as opposed to over a long period of time as other religions.
ReplyDeleteFalun gong also does not conceive of deities as many other major religions do, and is therefore more likely to be rationalized as a cult. Durkheim explains, "But on the other hand, does someone think of a perfect society, where justice and truth would be sovereign, and from which evil in all its forms would be banished for ever? No one would deny that this is in close relation with the religious sentiment; for, they would say, it is towards the realization of this that all religions strive. But that society is not an empirical fact, definite and observable; it is a fancy, a dream with which men have lightened their sufferings, but in which they have never really lived. It is merely an idea which comes to express our more or less obscure aspirations towards the good, the beautiful, and the ideal." (p. 193)
The cult of the saints and Falun Gong are similar in that both have their basis in "routinized religion". For example, the cult of the saints was a subcult of Christianity, which had already branched off of Judaism. The cult of the saints took the beliefs of Christianity, and through their actions surrounding the veneration of the martyrs and the various rites associated with their tombs, they added a new element of magic into the Christian practice. As O'Keefe states, "magic in the strict sense is 'social action'." (25) Through the action of adding new symbols and objects of veneration, a new magical component was introduced. Falun Gong also has its roots in the traditional beliefs of Buddhism and Daoism. The addition of beliefs in mystical powers as byproducts of practice also added a new magical component to the ideology borrowed from "routinized religions" such as Buddhism and Daoism.
ReplyDeleteMuch of the new magical elements in these subcults came from the creation of new symbols. The bones or tombs of the martyrs became symbols to early Christians, representing saints who would become protectors or intercessors on behalf of the individual. Likewise, in Falun Gong, Master Li's fashen became a symbol of protection from external forces such as demons and spirits. These objects were the focus of magical action, as "magic is often performed on objects, with the action really oriented to the behavior of others." (O'Keefe 26) This magical action is necessary for the object to have any power in the eyes of practitioners. The appeal of Falun Gong came from magical elements, such as the creation of these new symbols.
As O'Keefe states, "Magic is often sacred action which gets free of collective religious action." (27) This is exactly what happened with these two subcults: the introduction of magical action separate from religious action. This new magical action branched out from the established rituals and rites of the "routinized religion," and formed a new separate subcult.
Falun Gong can be seen as a cult or subcult of a “routinized” religion because of its similarities to practices of Buddhism and Daoism. Falun Gong similarly focuses upon individuals and the overall human race leaving behind the material prison of the earthly world for the greater good of oneness with the universe. It draws upon the concept of “desire lessness” of the Buddhist Four Noble Truths. However, despite these similarities with established religions, Falun Gong adds a mystical set of beliefs (for example the different planes of reality and the Celestial Third Eye) that adds magic to their doctrine. This is similar to the Cult of Saints that Peter Brown analyzed. The cult was rooted in Christian doctrine and practice but evolved magical tendencies in the veneration of the relics of the dead martyrs.
ReplyDeleteWe examined this relationship between religion and magic through the work of O’Keefe. O’Keefe suggests that the interaction of the leader and followers can be understood as magical action and he emphasizes the efficacy of magic. Indeed, magic does something, changes something, or makes something, and is effective in the social realm. Magic involves action of reason, not a pseudo-action of emotion, and it brings about a tangible change from these reasoned calculations. As O’Keefe writes, “Magic actions are rituals that make or change something. They operate mysteriously and what they create is mostly mystical – but these mysterious actions have social effects.” He also describes, “the endless dialectic between magic and religion that is part of social change in advanced societies and civilizations.” Thus, the spiritual phenomenon of the Falun Gong can be seen as emerging out of this dialectic. Magic binds oneself with something and protects the individual ego from the world as it also actively affects the world around the follower.
As Durkheim states, “Religious forces are therefore human forces, moral forces. It is true that since collective sentiments can become conscious of themselves only by fixing themselves upon external objects, they have not been able to take form without adopting some of their characteristics from other things: they have thus acquired a sort of physical nature; in this way they have come to mix themselves with the spiritual world.” This passage speaks of the symbology of religion and the mutual relations of religion and sociology. This represents the appeal of the Falun Gong, and other spiritual phenomena such as the Cult of Saints, because followers are involved in a dialectic of mutual reinforcement. They simultaneously look inward for personal cultivation yet also bind themselves to other followers and other physical, material symbols of the world.
We can say that Falun Gong is a subcult of a "routinized religion" as it brached off from Buddhism and Daoism just as Christianity branched off from Judaism. According to O'Keefe, "Magic is real action. Something really happens, often something violent, usually something of consequence. ... all magic is at least "action" and all magic in the strict sense is "social action."" (25) And by definition of magic here, clearly not only Falun Gong but also all other religions of the world encompass the social consequences of magic. And furthermore, O'Keefe also states that "magic actions are rituals that make or change something. They operate mysteriously and what they create is mostly mystical..." (28) For example, if we assume that Falun Gong's Qi activities are "magic", it surely is mystical for those who do not belive in any power of qi or mind-cultivation. Furthermore, it also brings about social disturbance, which leads to a definite conclusion that Falun Gong is perhaps magic.
ReplyDeleteO'Keefe again states that "in magic, individuals are able to take over especially powerful collective symbols and use them to think and to act effectively in the dangerous symbolic world in which man lives." (40) This, again, emphasizes the magical aspect of Falun Gong as it incorporates many symbols such as yin-yang, Buddha's thousand arms, the symbol of wan, and many else.
Even though all these three aspects of magic suit Falun Gong, we can't definitely say that Falun Going IS MAGIC; however, at least according to O'Keefe, Falun Gong surely is a not a totally new type of belief.
Magic, religion, and science: Durkheim tries to dispell the popular schema that these three things cannot coexist without conflict. In order to explain religious phenomena, Durkheim uses science as a means of explaining the construction of concepts. He argues, "Today it is generally sufficient that [concepts] bear the stamp of science to receive a sort of privileged credit, because we have faith in science. But this faith does not differ essentially from religious faith" (213). Not only is this "faith in science" somewhat paradoxal, but this statement can be applied perfectly to the rise and following of Falun Gong. As we have read in Zhaun Falun, Master Li's teachings have a strong base in scientific claims. Whether or not the biology or physics of such phenomena are true, what remains is a wide following of practicioners who accept these claims. This proves that proven fact, what we would consider "hard-science" is not as potent as the faith that supports the facts as true.
ReplyDeleteWe need to examine if the scientific principles described in Li Hongzhi's teachings really have an important role in public life in order to fully grasp the understanding of Falun Gong. For instance, there are many interpretations of the Christian Bible, some more literal than others. However, unlike Falun Gong, these different interpretations have led to branching off into different religious sects, similarly to what we have read in "Cult of the Saints." If there is only one core faith based off of the teachings of Zhaun Falun, it must be inevitable that there will be an eventually split amongst the followers if Falun Gong is indeed a religion. This movement would prove OKeefe's theory that "all magic is social action." Faith and belief are constantly pushing social boundaries in different directions, shifting and breaking away to form new ideas, just like science.
Falun Gong is like a sub-cult of a “routinized” religion in the same way that Christianity is a sub-cult of Judaism. Christianity is an offshoot of Judaism, yet still draws from many Jewish practices and beliefs. Falun Gong similarly is a sub-cult of larger, more traditional Chinese religions like Buddhism and Daoism. Many of the beliefs that Falun Gong advocates are traditional in nature – values like forbearance and an opposition to materialism. But other teachings of theirs seem to enter more into the cultic realm – the existence of the celestial Third Eye, and the belief that constant faith and obedience to the practice could bring about what basically amounts to super-powers in a human being.
ReplyDeleteThis dialectic of magic and religion helps explain the swift and widespread emergence of Falun Gong. As O’Keefe explains in “Stolen Lightning,” magic makes something or changes something: “The Latin verb facere, for example, has the dual meaning of to do and to make… the Greek word for magic, etc., means “things done.” The supposed immediacy of magic is a very tempting idea to the average person. The power of the idea of magic, along with traditional religious elements, provide for us a valid answer in trying to understand the powerful appeal of Falun Gong.
First of all, it is important to note that at the very foundation of Falun Gong, like all religious and cultic practices, lurks society; Durkheim emphasizes that nothing beyond our innate humanity could exist without it. Religion is a "collective ideal" that stems from a homoginization and assimilation of the multitude of ideals held by a certain society (pg. 196, Emile Durkheim's Elementary Forms of Religious Life). This may seem odd seeing as Falun Gong is quite disparate in thought from the governing force behind China, but in reality it only reflects the lack of proper representation the CCP applies in dealing with the Chinese people. The governing body in this case does not reflect the society which it governs, resulting of course in problems for both Falun Gong and the government.
ReplyDeleteFalun Gong's origins as a stand-alone practice began, as Durkheim explains, as a product of the battle between tradition and hope for the future (pg.196). As clearly evidenced in recent Christian history, this battle is by no means connected to just Falun Gong but rather all religious practices. Without a balance of these two seemingly polar attributes, no religion can operate under a singular unified order, but sometimes change is inevitable and justifiable. This transitions nicely into O'Keefe's argument concerning language drift. While maintaining much of the same terminology as the religions from which it originated, Falun Gong has managed to absorb into its docrine many of the powerful shifts in meaning that have come about to reflect the changing political and social environment that swept China after Mao's reign of power came to a close. The more modern application of traditional spiritual terms has attracted many followers to the practice of Falun Gong, as it allows these followers to feel as though they belong to a group that shares a collective identity with one another that the CCP no longer can offer.
This unified identity creates a sense of personal connectedness between followers of Falun Gong that creates a more powerful feeling than if it were practiced alone. Followers of Falun Gong create small communities wherever possible to take advantage of this power emanating from shared belief. The feeling of community is enhanced further by the exclusivity of Falun Gong: the idea that practitioners are in some way superior to members of other practices. This community is brought closer together through its exclusivity, just as the early Christians found their religious experience enhanced by the inclusion of area-specific saints.
Finally, Brown's description of the relics as a method of sympathetic magic parellels the physical cultivation practices in Falun Gong in that both generate some kind of effect through their use that leads to the actions continuation. The relics are thought to be lucky or enable magical healings, while the cultivation practices have similiar effects. These cause and effect exhibitions demonstrated to the followers of both early Christianity and Falun Gong today the correctness of their own religious ideals.
As we have found in attempting to explain Falun Gong, oftentimes it is difficult to differentiate between what is cultish and what is religious behavior, as frequently the two overlap or are present at the same time. Our perusal of Zhuan Falun has led many of us to believe that Falun Gong is a cult, and in addition the fact that it is even questionable at this point in the course is evidence that it may not be inaccurate to label it as such. Important to remember, however, is that "cult" does not necessary have to carry negative connotations, and in labeling it a cult we surely do not mean to apply the label of "evil cult" imposed by the Chinese Communist Party. In attempting to determine how Falun Gong might be a cult, a theoretical approach can prove very useful. Looking first to Durkheim, who approaches the issue of religion from a social and moral standpoint, we learn that cults are in a necessary marriage with religion. He claims, "We have said that there is something eternal in religion: it is the cult and the faith. Men cannot celebrate ceremonies for which they in no way understand. To spread itself or merely to maintain itself, it must be justified, that is to say , a theory must be made of it" (Durkheim 205). While seeming initially to be somewhat obvious claims, Durkheim draws attention to the fact that in order to maintain a religion, there must be a cult of meaning which is founded upon a believable theory. We find this exactly in Falun Gong, as in Zhuan Falun, Li Hongzhi provides a theoretical background for his practice, thus solidifying a faith to which he can form and maintain a cult.
ReplyDeleteWhether or not Falun Gong is a religion or cult, the concepts of magic and religion, and consequently cults, must be examined in order to pass any sort of judgement on this spiritual movement. O'keefe highlights the magical nature of religion by placing an emphasis on magic and "magic as social action". Continuing, he draws attention to the importance of language and language as symbols. This is extremely appropriate for Falun Gong as we can apply O'Keefe's reasoning to the three tenets of Falun Gong; Zhen, Shan, Ren.O'Keefe states,"sympathetic magic comes down to links between words provided by primitive classification systems, which are used for the transfer of qualities between concepts in suggestive statements aimed at affecting these entities, which in turn affect their physical referents." (O'Keefe 51). By living out the principles of Falun Gong, or merely stating them or thinking of them, practitioners seem to be transcending the natural world and reaching somewhere higher, as these words begin to attain a certain efficacy both in their daily lives and in times of great need, as we saw with Jennifer Zeng. Seeing the effects of Falun Gong would certainly explain the drawing of members into, and the retention therein, of members into the "cult" of Falun Gong.
The magic described by O'Keefe leads directly into some of the explanations offered by Peter Brown in "The Cult of Saints". By drawing parallels between Falun Gong and the cult of saints in early christianity, the efficacy of words and the exploration into the supernatural mentioned above can be linked to one of Brown's thought processes on the emergence of the cult of saints. Falun Gong shares the aspect of people having a new way of thinking, both socially and religiously, which Brown articulates, "Yet we have seen in the beginning of this chapter that the rise of the cult of saints was sensed by contemporaries, in no uncertain manner, to have broken most of the imaginative boundaries which ancient men had placed between heaven and earth, the divine and the human, the living and the dead, the town and its antithesis" (Brown 21). In Falun Gong, there is certainly much breaking of barriers going on, and as we have mentioned before, a search for new meaning in life, and a desire to escape what is material and earthly and in some way become closer to what is divine.
As we have discussed in class and seen in the text of Zhuan Falun, much of Falun Gong has its basis in the teachings of Buddhism and Taoism. However, we have learned that Li Hongzhi preaches that his qigong techniques provide access to a higher plane of knowledge, ability, and spirituality. It seems that O'Keefe would not find this development unusual. He states, "When a religion becomes too cognitive and its own magic dries up, either faith in the propositions of its worldview will weaken, or else magical challenges will appear at the periphery in the form of new sects using striking performatives to overthrow or renew the religion" (O'Keefe 55). Moreover, O'Keefe recognizes the efficacy of magic when used by believers. He begins his piece by simply stating, "Magic is real action" (O'Keefe 25). While we may be skeptical of the reasoning behind the effects of Falun Gong on its practitioners, these true believers feel that Falun Gong raises their "energy levels." The action produces results for practitioners.
ReplyDeleteDurkheim would agree with these ideas put forth by O'Keefe as they apply to Falun Gong. He states, "Men cannot celebrate ceremonies for which they see no reason, nor can they accept a faith which they in no way understand" (Durkheim 205). It may be a question as to how well Falun Gong practitioners actually "understand" Master Li's theories, but presented in a context of simply increasing spiritual energy, the exercises can be comprehended by anyone.
Finally, one must not underestimate the importance of community when looking for reason in the growth Falun Gong. Previous articles we have read discuss the collective nihilism that may have been present when Falun Gong got its start. As Durkheim states, " [T]he collective consciousness is the highest form of the psychic life, since it is the consciousness of the consciousness" (Durkheim 220). This quote seems to argue for a human desire to participate in religious communities. By doing so, one will better understand right from wrong, as well as gain comfort from participating in a practice with like-minded individuals.
It is understandable to think that Falun Gong is a cult or subcult because it seems to draw practices and beliefs from a wider and more defined set of beliefs. This is similiar to The Cult of Saints as others have said. The cult drew on beliefs and practices that were fundamental to Christianity. Yet, they deviated from these when it came to worshipping the saints. O'Keefe describes magic as "social action". This is what happens in this situation. People join this cult as a matter of social action. Falun Gong is similiar in that it draws on Buddhism and Daoism but adds its own elements, and magic. This makes it seem as though it is a cult or subcult.
ReplyDeleteBut I think it is important to look a Falun Gong in a slightly different light, as there are a lot of anecdotal and statistical evidence that there are many practicioners that don't embrace the deep ideological writings of Zhaun Falun. This begs the question, can one classify Falun Gong as cult based on this criterion if it is not really embraced by the practicioners.
What “routinized religion” is Falun Gong a reaction to? When considering this question there are several answers. Falun Gong could be a sub-cult of Buddhism, Daoism, general Chinese religious practice, or any combination of the preceding. Our class has established that Falun Gong draws upon the elements of Buddhism, Daoism, and Chinese spirituality, but in establishing that a problem arises with the definition of Falun Gong as a sub-cult. How can it be a reaction to a “routinized religion” when that which it reacts to, a complex blend of several different religious subtexts, refuses to be routine?
ReplyDeleteBrown encounters a similar problem in his examination of the Christian cult of saints. Christianity was an incredibly fluid religion with a vast array of regional interpretations and rituals during the medieval period that he studies; it could hardly be described as routinized. Nonetheless, a cultic worship of ideal figures arose drawing its legitimacy from Christianity. Brown posits that, in part, the cult of saints was also a reaction to a general cultural shift, which, “marked an end of the way of seeing the relation between human dead and the universe, and… a shifting of the barriers that Mediterranean men had sought to circumscribe the role of the dead”(Brown 5). To me it seems as if a similar pattern occurred in Falun Gong. The religious practices which it draws legitimacy from, uses to access the divine, and appropriates its symbolism, are far from routine. However, that which it is actually reacting to, Chinese society and government, has been rigidly structured.
O’Keefe constantly argues that “magic actions are rituals that make or change something”. The magical element of Falun Gong is that the prescribed set of motions and breathing can effect your physical health and improve your moral character. This augmentation of morality is the portion of Falun Gong’s magic which effects a change in social interaction. This is how Falung Gong enters the “endless dialectic between magic and religion that is part of the social change in advanced societies and civilizations”. Similarly, Durkheim argues that religious behavior enlightens social and cultural beliefs.